Then he did a long jump and after landing, the closest point of the body to the jumping start line was measured. The case could jump up to three times and the best jump was recorded.
D Forty five- meter running for measuring the speed: In this test, the time the case spent for running a distance of 45 meters was considered recorded. E Running 9 meters for four times to measure agility: The subject stood behind the start line with two pieces of wood being placed in 9 meters away from him.
Then he began running with a sign, picked up one piece of wood, returned to the start line, put the piece of wood behind the line, ran again, took the second piece, and passed the start line quickly. The time of the whole process was recorded. F Using a flexible ruler to measure the flexibility: The subject sat on the ground with straight legs. He performed the motion of tests for 2 times and moved his hands toward the toes as much as possible and kept himself in this position for a few seconds.
The relevant point in the third time was recorded by the flexible ruler. The mean age of smokers The smokers had the habit of smoking for 2 to 6 years 3.
The mean weight was The mean height of smokers and non-smokers were The average numbers of times that non-smokers and smokers could go over the bar were statistically different 6.
Likewise, a significant difference was seen in jumping results the smokers However, no significant difference was observed in abdominal muscle endurance in the two groups of smokers and non-smokers The average times smokers and non-smokers ran the distance of 45 meters were significantly different 6. In addition, the results of the agility test were also different among smokers and non-smokers The flexibility of smokers and nonsmokers were not significantly different Muscle strength measurement in the shoulder belt and the lower limb showed a significant difference between smokers and non-smokers, i.
The results of the present study were similar to the some other researches; Orlander et al. Fukuba et al. Therefore, another study on older smokers with longer time of cigarette smoking is suggested. In the study of muscle flexibility among the smokers and non-smokers, it was observed that the smokers had more muscular flexibility than the non-smokers but the difference was not statistically significant. On the contrary, Kumar et al. Similar to Orlander et al.
However, Weisman et al. Therefore, further research in this field is necessary to investigate the effects of smoking on different systems of muscle contractions and the use of devices such as electromyography EMG to more accurately determine the results.
Based on the results obtained from this study, it can be concluded that body muscles are among the organs that could be threatened by smoking. The damage will cause the gradual loss of physical strength and reduction of active personal and social power which in turn result in wasting useful hours of daily work and damaging the economy of the society.
This research, which resulted from a student thesis, was financially supported by Vice-Chancellery for Research, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences. The authors gratefully acknowledge the Deputy of Research and all of the students who have helped us to collect the results. Conflicts of Interest. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Journal List Addict Health v. Addict Health. Find articles by Farzaneh Moslemi-Haghighi.
Find articles by Iman Rezaei. Find articles by Farahnaz Ghaffarinejad. Find articles by Reza Lari. Find articles by Fatemeh Pouya. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Correspondence to: Farahnaz Ghaffarinejad, Email: ri.
Received Dec 26; Accepted Mar 1. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. When smoked, bidis have higher concentrations of nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide than conventional cigarettes sold in the United States. Cigarette: A thin cylinder of ground or shredded tobacco that is wrapped in paper, lit, and smoked.
Other Tobacco Products that are Smoked Cigar: A tube of tobacco that is thicker than a cigarette, wrapped in tobacco leaf, lit, and smoked. Cigars include regular cigars, cigarillos, and little filtered cigars. Hookah: Hookahs are water pipes that are used to smoke specially made tobacco that comes in different flavors, such as apple, mint, cherry, chocolate, coconut, licorice, cappuccino, and watermelon. Also called water pipes. Pipe: A tube with a small bowl at one end that is filled with tobacco, lit, and smoked.
Smokeless Tobacco Products Chewing tobacco: A type of shredded or twisted smokeless tobacco that the user keeps in his or her mouth, between the cheek and gum. Dip: Dipping tobacco so called because users dip their fingers into the package to pinch a portion to insert into the mouth is moist ground tobacco placed between the lower lip or cheek and the gums; it is not used nasally. Dissolvables : Dissolvables are finely ground tobacco pressed into shapes such as tablets, orbs, sticks, or strips and slowly dissolve in the mouth.
Snuff: Finely ground smokeless tobacco usually sold in round cans. Can be placed between the check and gum or may be sniffed. The average cigarette consumption of RA and AS patients was Conclusion: Although we found no relation between quality of life and smoking in RA and AS patients, our study revealed that smoker AR and AS patients' initial symptoms begin much earlier compared with non-smokers.
More studies needed to investigate the effects of smoking in AR and AS patients are needed. Many health problems await individuals who have chronic exposure to cigarette smoke, being either an addicted or passive smoker [ 1 ].
Approximately six million people die from direct or indirect effects of smoking each year across the world, with a number of much more suffering from serious diseases including various types of cancer , chronical obstructive lung disease COLD and coronary heart disease [ 2 ]. Cigarette smoke induces or causes to several diseases due to a number of about chemical materials such as toluene and arsenic [ 3 ]. Many systems and organs are affected by these toxic materials however musculoskeletal system is considered to be one of the most severely effected [ 4 ].
In both etiological and morbidity aspects, an association has been shown between cigarette smoke, and rheumatoid arthritis RA and ankylosing spondylitis AS , being the most crucial chronically musculoskeletal degenerative diseases [ 5 , 6 ]. In particular, several research pointed out an increased etiological risk between RA and smoking [ 7 ]. It has been shown that smoking has an adverse effect on disease activity by means of induced retaining of lungs in RA [ 7 , 8 ].
AS has also been suggested to emerge further severe lung conditions with emphysema due to smoking and closed costasternal joints as well as having adverse effects leading to increased level of osteoporosis [ 9 ]. Smoking not only increases the risk for developing a disease, but it affects the severity of the disease. The association depends on the dose intake and it is much evident in those who are highly addicted to smoking. Although there are some findings suggesting increased severity of the disease with smoking, the mechanism is still unclear [ 10 ].
Smoking leads to deteriorated life quality in AS patients by reactivating the disease more frequently as well as destroying the physical functions. While typical symptoms of the disease including low back pain and morning stiffness are associated with active smoking, disease-induced injuries and deformations are related to smoking in past [ 11 ]. In subjects diagnosed with AS, it is known that smoking limits Lumbar Schober test, finger — floor distance, occiput — wall distance and total spinal motions [ 12 ].
In consideration of these clinical data, it may be asserted that smoke addiction is likely to adversely affect on the life qualities of patients with RA and AS. The present study is designed so as to investigate how smoking addiction affects on the life-quality related to inflammatory diseases in Turkish patients with RA and SA who applied to Ondokuz Mayis University Medical Faculty Hospital.
The study is designed as a retrospective case control study. Power analysis was performed in order to determine total number of the participants. Accordingly, in our country, the incidence of smoking addiction in subjects over 18 years old was considered Thus, the minimal numbers of participants were calculated as 75 RA and 65 AS subjects.
A total of subjects were included in the study on voluntary basis who were diagnosed as RA and AS with a recent smoking history of at least one year, or those who expressed not to have been smoking for at least 5 years. As a consequent, a total of 7 subjects were excluded from the study sample, five of whom expressed to have started smoking more than 1 year, and the remaining 2 subjects for having quitted smoking more than 5 years.
Firstly, a questionnaire was carried out to the participants in order to investigate their demographical and overall health conditions. The patients meeting the inclusion criteria in the research were divided into two categories as the study group smokers and the control non-smokers. The smoking history of patients and their characteristics were questioned.
Information such as age at onset of smoking, how long and how often they smoke, any attempts to quit smoking etc. This group was applied Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence and the degree of their addiction was measured. SF and EQ-5D overall life scales were applied to assess the life quality in both groups. Of the subjects, anthropometric measurements were performed and their waist circumference and body mass index BMI were calculated. The data were analyzed comparatively.
Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence was applied to patients in the study in an effort to measure their degree of addiction and, thus any relationship between the degree of addiction and life-quality was investigated. Subsequently, the differences in life quality between the two groups were statistically analyzed.
With a generic scaling feature in life-quality scales providing a wide-angle measurement, Short Form—36 was developed in by the Rand Corporation and introduced into usage [ 16 ]. It has eight subscales physical role, pain, health perception, vitality, social function, emotional role and mental health.
Kocyigit et al [ 17 ] studied the reliability and validity of the Turkish version of the SF SF subscales grouped according to the Question Numbers were obtained by Arat [ 18 ]. There is no specific cut point of the test. The participants have better quality of life with the higher results from the test. EQ-5D generic health scale has been translated into more than 60 languages, one of which is Turkish language by EuroQol Group. The higher the test scores, the more the quality of life increases [ 19 ].
Heatherton et al.
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